Precision Fueling for Olympic Biathletes

Biathlon's Unique Demands

The demanding nature of biathlon, merging high-intensity cross-country skiing with precise rifle shooting, results in exceptionally high energy requirements for athletes. During intensive training periods, biathletes frequently experience daily energy expenditures exceeding 7000 kcal. This demand is higher than in pure cross-country skiing, since the additional 4 kg rifle load increases energy cost by approximately 7% [1]. Such substantial energy turnover puts biathletes at a significant risk of low energy availability (LEA), a state where energy intake fails to meet the body's needs after exercise. Persistent LEA can lead to relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S), a syndrome with detrimental effects on health and performance, including impaired immunity, reproductive function, and reduced training adaptation [2]. Monitoring for LEA is crucial and can be done using validated questionnaires like the "LEAF-Q" for women and "LEAM-Q" for men.

Beyond the immediate energy expenditure, the sport's structure presents unique recovery challenges. Competitions often feature consecutive race days, sometimes with less than 24 hours between events, making effective nutritional recovery paramount for sustained performance. This creates an additional layer of complexity to the nutritional demands for this dual-performance sport:

• Strategies aimed at boosting aerobic capacity must not compromise the delicate fine motor control needed for shooting. For instance, while caffeine can enhance endurance performance, studies indicate it may negatively impact shooting accuracy in biathletes.
• Training and competition frequently occur in cold, high-altitude environments. These conditions increase energy expenditure, alter how the body uses fuel, and heighten the risk of dehydration and iron deficiency.

Understanding these multifaceted demands is the first step in developing targeted nutritional strategies to optimize both endurance and precision for Olympic biathletes. Gawelczyk et al. (2025) compiled the latest knowledge into a guiding review for biathlon athletes [3].

Energy and Macronutrient Foundations

A structured approach to energy and macronutrient intake forms the essential foundation for biathletes to meet the rigorous demands of their sport, supporting both endurance and recovery.

Carbohydrates are the cornerstone of a biathlete's diet, serving as the primary fuel source for high-intensity efforts. Daily intake recommendations range from 6-12 g/kg of body mass per day, adjusted based on training intensity and duration to ensure optimal replenishment of muscle glycogen (stored carbohydrates). During training sessions lasting over 90 minutes, athletes should consume 30–90 g of carbohydrates per hour from sources like isotonic drinks, energy bars, or gels to sustain performance and support immune function. Post-exercise, especially with frequent training sessions, rapid recovery is paramount. Biathletes are advised to consume approximately 1.2 g/kg of carbohydrates immediately after exercise to maximize glycogen resynthesis.

Protein plays an equally vital role in muscle repair, recovery, and adaptation. The recommended daily intake for biathletes is 1.6 g/kg of body mass. To optimize muscle protein synthesis, athletes should aim for approximately 0.3 g/kg of high-quality protein (roughly 20–25 g) in meals consumed every three to four hours, with a particular focus on immediate post-training or race intake. When carbohydrate intake is insufficient, protein, particularly whey hydrolysate, can also enhance glycogen resynthesis.

Biathlon races are high-intensity efforts typically lasting 20–50 minutes, often occurring over several consecutive days. Given this duration, extensive carbohydrate loading strategies are generally unnecessary, as glycogen stores are not usually a limiting factor for events under 90 minutes. However, the tight recovery windows between daily races make strategic carbohydrate intake paramount:

• Pre-Race: On race day, a low-fat, high-fiber, high-carbohydrate breakfast is recommended, followed by a high-carbohydrate snack (liquid or solid) depending on the timing relative to the race.
• Post-Race: Immediate recovery is critical. A recovery shake containing approximately 0.3 g/kg body mass of protein and 1.2 g/kg body mass of carbohydrates is advised as soon as possible after the race. The liquid meal helps rehydrate and is often better tolerated, especially if appetite is suppressed.

Micronutrients and Supplementation

While biathletes generally consume sufficient nutrient to prevent widespread deficiencies, attention to specific micronutrients, in particular iron and vitamin D, is crucial for optimal performance and health. Here's what the research highlights:

• Iron: This essential micronutrient is vital for oxygen transport throughout the body, and its deficiency can impair athletic performance. Iron deficiency is particularly common among endurance athletes, with female athletes facing a higher prevalence. Contributing factors include insufficient energy intake, vegetarian diets, and the demands of endurance exercise itself. Regular monitoring of iron status through blood markers like ferritin and hemoglobin is therefore highly recommended. While some athletes may opt for iron supplementation, evidence suggests it only benefits those who are genuinely deficient, not those with normal levels.
• Vitamin D: Suboptimal vitamin D levels are prevalent globally, often exacerbated in winter or for athletes who primarily train indoors. Maintaining levels above 50 nmol/L is important for immune function, bone health, and recovery. If dietary intake and sun exposure are insufficient, supplementation of 2000–4000 IU/day may be necessary to achieve adequate levels. It's important to note that while these micronutrient concerns are well-documented in endurance sports, specific longitudinal data for elite biathletes remains limited, meaning current practices are often empirical.

Other dietary supplementation recommendations include: Caffeine, the most popular stimulant that reduces fatigue and sustains power - though it may reduce shooting precision. Beta-alanine, enhances the muscle's ability to neutralize acid during intense exercise. Creatine, known to boost power output, speed, and reduce fatigue. Bicarbonate, can help manage acid buildup. Dietary nitrates, may improve running efficiency and endurance. Tart cherry, is suggested to improve sleep duration and efficiency.

Future Research

Ultimately, biathletes must carefully adopt an individualized nutrition and supplementation strategy, meticulously evaluating how any aid influences both endurance output and shooting precision under realistic conditions. While many of the above-mentioned ergogenic (performance enhancing) aids are well-established for boosting physical capabilities, their specific impact on fine motor skills like shooting accuracy is not always clear, and in some instances, can even be detrimental. Furthermore, Gawelczyk et al. highlight that many recommendations are actually based on related sports, such as cross-country skiing or triathlon, and therefore more research is needed to collect biathlon-specific data to better capture the unique demands of the sport.

References

1. Frederick E. "Estimates of the Energy Cost of Rifle Carriage in Biathlon Ski Skating", Journal of Applied Biomechanics 3 (1987) 392–403 . https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsb.3.4.392
2. Mountjoy M et al. "2023 International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs)", Br J Sports Med 57 (2023) 1073-1097. 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106994
3. Gawelczyk M, Kaszuba M, Petr M. "Nutritional Strategies for Olympic Biathletes: A Practical Review", Nutrients 17 (2025) 3385. 10.3390/nu17213385